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Java Man

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<th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">Java Man <div style="font-size: 85%;">Temporal range: <a href="Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a></div>

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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%">The <a href="Syntype" title="Syntype">syntype</a> fossils of Java Man (H. e. erectus), at <a href="Naturalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalis">Naturalis</a>, <a href="Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>

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<th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a>

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<td>Kingdom:

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<td><a href="Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a>

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<td>Phylum:

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<td><a href="Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordata</a>

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<td>Class:

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<td><a href="Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a>

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<td>Order:

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<td><a href="Primate" title="Primate">Primates</a>

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<td>Suborder:

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<td><a href="Haplorhini" title="Haplorhini">Haplorhini</a>

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<td>Infraorder:

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<td><a href="Simian" title="Simian">Simiiformes</a>

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<td>Family:

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<td><a href="Hominidae" title="Hominidae">Hominidae</a>

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<td>Subfamily:

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<td><a href="Homininae" title="Homininae">Homininae</a>

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<td>Tribe:

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<td><a href="Hominini" title="Hominini">Hominini</a>

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<td>Genus:

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<td>Species:

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<td><div style="display:inline" class="species"><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr><a href="Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">H. erectus</a></div>

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<td>Subspecies:

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<td><div style="display:inline" class="subspecies"><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr>H. e. erectus</div>

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<th colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><a href="Trinomial_nomenclature" title="Trinomial nomenclature">Trinomial name</a>

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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">†Homo erectus erectus <div style="font-size: 85%;"></div>

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Java Man (Homo erectus erectus, formerly also Anthropopithecus erectus or Pithecanthropus erectus) is an <a href="Early_human" class="mw-redirect" title="Early human">early human</a> fossil discovered in 1891 and 1892 on the island of <a href="Java" title="Java">Java</a> (Indonesia). Estimated to be between 700,000 and 1,490,000 years old,<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> it was, at the time of its discovery, the oldest <a href="Hominid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominid">hominid</a> fossil ever found, and it remains the <a href="Type_specimen" class="mw-redirect" title="Type specimen">type specimen</a> for <a href="Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a>.

Led by <a href="Eug%C3%A8ne_Dubois" title="Eugène Dubois">Eugène Dubois</a>, the excavation team uncovered a <a href="Tooth" title="Tooth">tooth</a>, a <a href="Calvaria_(skull)" title="Calvaria (skull)">skullcap</a>, and a <a href="Femur" title="Femur">thighbone</a> at <a href="Trinil" title="Trinil">Trinil</a> on the banks of the <a href="Solo_River" title="Solo River">Solo River</a> in <a href="East_Java" title="East Java">East Java</a>. Arguing that the fossils represented the "<a href="Transitional_fossil#Missing_links" title="Transitional fossil">missing link</a>" between apes and humans, Dubois gave the species the <a href="Scientific_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific name">scientific name</a> <a href="Anthropopithecus" title="Anthropopithecus">Anthropopithecus</a> erectus, then later renamed it Pithecanthropus erectus. The fossil aroused much controversy. Within a decade of the discovery almost eighty books or articles had been published on Dubois's finds. Despite Dubois's argument, few accepted that Java Man was a <a href="Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">transitional form</a> between apes and humans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200070-2">[2]</a> Some dismissed the fossils as <a href="Ape" title="Ape">apes</a> and others as <a href="Anatomically_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomically modern humans">modern humans</a>, whereas many scientists considered Java Man as a primitive side branch of evolution not related to modern humans at all. In the 1930s Dubois made the claim that Pithecanthropus was built like a "giant <a href="Gibbon" title="Gibbon">gibbon</a>", a much misinterpreted attempt by Dubois to prove that it was the "missing link". Eventually, similarities between Java Man and Sinanthropus pekinensis (<a href="Peking_Man" title="Peking Man">Peking Man</a>) led <a href="Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a> to rename both <a href="Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a> in 1950, placing them directly in the human <a href="Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">evolutionary tree</a>.

To distinguish Java Man from other Homo erectus populations, some scientists began to regard it as a subspecies, Homo erectus erectus, in the 1970s. <a href="Early_hominids_in_Southeast_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Early hominids in Southeast Asia">Other fossils</a> found in the first half of the twentieth century in Java at <a href="Sangiran" title="Sangiran">Sangiran</a> and <a href="Mojokerto" title="Mojokerto">Mojokerto</a>, all older than those found by Dubois, are also considered part of the species Homo erectus. The fossils of Java Man have been housed at the <a href="Rijksmuseum_van_Geologie_en_Mineralogie" title="Rijksmuseum van Geologie en Mineralogie">Rijksmuseum van Geologie en Mineralogie</a> and later <a href="Naturalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalis">Naturalis</a> in the <a href="Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> since 1900.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_discoveries">History of discoveries</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3></div>

<a href="Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> had argued that <a href="Recent_African_origin_of_modern_humans#History_of_the_theory" title="Recent African origin of modern humans">humanity evolved in Africa</a>, because this is where <a href="Great_ape" class="mw-redirect" title="Great ape">great apes</a> like <a href="Gorilla" title="Gorilla">gorillas</a> and <a href="Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a> lived. Though Darwin's claims have since been vindicated by the <a href="Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> record, they were proposed without any fossil evidence. Other scientific authorities disagreed with him, like <a href="Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a>, a <a href="Geologist" title="Geologist">geologist</a>, and <a href="Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a>, who thought of a similar <a href="Theory_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of evolution">theory of evolution</a> around the same time as Darwin. Because both Lyell and Wallace believed that <a href="Human" title="Human">humans</a> were more closely related to gibbons or another great ape (the <a href="Orangutan" title="Orangutan">orangutans</a>), they identified <a href="Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> as the cradle of humanity because this is where these apes lived. Dutch anatomist <a href="Eug%C3%A8ne_Dubois" title="Eugène Dubois">Eugène Dubois</a> favored the latter theory, and sought to confirm it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200058–59-3">[3]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trinil_fossils">Trinil fossils</h3></div>

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</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:412px;max-width:412px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:217px;max-width:217px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:224px;overflow:hidden"></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="Eug%C3%A8ne_Dubois" title="Eugène Dubois">Eugène Dubois</a>'s <a href="Stratigraphic_section" title="Stratigraphic section">stratigraphic section</a> of the site where he found Java Man. The femur and skullcap appear at level D between a "<a href="Lapilli" title="Lapilli">lapilli</a>" stratum (C) and a "<a href="Conglomerate_(geology)" title="Conglomerate (geology)">conglomerate</a>" (E).</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:191px;max-width:191px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:224px;overflow:hidden"></div><div class="thumbcaption">The three main fossils of Java Man found in 1891–92: a <a href="Calvaria_(skull)" title="Calvaria (skull)">skullcap</a>, a <a href="Molar_(tooth)" title="Molar (tooth)">molar</a>, and a <a href="Femur" title="Femur">thighbone</a>, each seen from two different angles.</div></div></div></div></div>

In October 1887, Dubois abandoned his academic career and left for the <a href="Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a> (present-day <a href="Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>) to look for the fossilized ancestor of modern man.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200058de_Vos2004270-4">[4]</a> Having received no funding from the Dutch government for his eccentric endeavor – since no one at the time had ever found an early human fossil while looking for it – he joined the Dutch East Indies Army as a military surgeon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200059_["unorthodox"_venture;_was_refused_government_funding;_hired_as_medical_officer]_and_61_["he_was_the_first_person_to_set_out_on_a_deliberate_search_for_fossils_of_human_ancestors"]_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200059_["unorthodox"_venture;_was_refused_government_funding;_hired_as_medical_officer]_and_61_["he_was_the_first_person_to_set_out_on_a_deliberate_search_for_fossils_of_human_ancestors"]-5">[5]</a> Because of his work duties, it was only in July 1888 that he began to <a href="Excavation_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Excavation (archaeology)">excavate</a> caves in <a href="Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200061-6">[6]</a> Having quickly found abundant fossils of large mammals, Dubois was relieved of his military duties (March 1889), and the colonial government assigned two engineers and fifty convicts to help him with his excavations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200061–62-7">[7]</a> After he failed to find the fossils he was looking for on Sumatra, he moved on to Java in 1890.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheunissen198941–43-8">[8]</a>

Again assisted by convict laborers and two army corporals, Dubois began searching along the <a href="Solo_River" title="Solo River">Solo River</a> near <a href="Trinil" title="Trinil">Trinil</a> in August 1891.<a href="#cite_note-EB-9">[9]</a> His team soon excavated a <a href="Molar_(tooth)" title="Molar (tooth)">molar</a> (Trinil 1) and a <a href="Calvaria_(skull)" title="Calvaria (skull)">skullcap</a> (Trinil 2). Its characteristics were a long <a href="Human_cranium" class="mw-redirect" title="Human cranium">cranium</a> with a <a href="Sagittal_keel" title="Sagittal keel">sagittal keel</a> and heavy browridge. Dubois first gave them the name <a href="Anthropopithecus" title="Anthropopithecus">Anthropopithecus</a> ("man-ape"), as the chimpanzee was sometimes known at the time. He chose this name because a similar tooth found in the <a href="Siwalik_Hills" class="mw-redirect" title="Siwalik Hills">Siwalik Hills</a> in India in 1878 had been named Anthropopithecus, and because Dubois first assessed the cranium to have been about 700 cubic centimetres (43 cu in), closer to apes than to humans.

In August 1892, a year later, Dubois's team found a long <a href="Femur" title="Femur">femur</a> (thighbone) shaped like a human one, suggesting that its owner had stood upright. The femur bone was found 50 feet (approx. 15 meters) from the original find one year earlier. Believing that the three fossils belonged to a single individual, "probably a very aged female", Dubois renamed the specimen Anthropopithecus erectus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Vos2004272_[citation_from_an_assessment_Dubois_made_in_1893]SwisherCurtisLewin200061_[name_''Anthropopithecus'']-10">[10]</a> Only in late 1892, when he determined that the cranium measured about 900 cubic centimetres (55 cu in), did Dubois consider that his specimen was a <a href="Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">transitional form</a> between apes and humans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200067-11">[11]</a> In 1894,<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> he thus renamed it Pithecanthropus erectus ("upright ape-man"), borrowing the genus name <a href="Pithecanthropus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pithecanthropus">Pithecanthropus</a> from <a href="Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a>, who had coined it a few years earlier to refer to a supposed "missing link" between apes and humans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200066–7-13">[13]</a> This specimen has also been known as Pithecanthropus 1.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparisons_with_Peking_Man">Comparisons with Peking Man</h3></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Peking_Man" title="Peking Man">Peking Man</a></div>

In 1927, Canadian <a href="Davidson_Black" title="Davidson Black">Davidson Black</a> identified two fossilized teeth he had found in <a href="Zhoukoudian" title="Zhoukoudian">Zhoukoudian</a> near <a href="Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> as belonging to an ancient human, and named his specimen Sinanthropus pekinensis, now better known as <a href="Peking_Man" title="Peking Man">Peking Man</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200075-15">[15]</a> In December 1929, the first of several skullcaps was found on the same site, and it appeared similar but slightly larger than Java Man.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmalzer200844–45_[date_of_discovery]SwisherCurtisLewin2000-16">[16]</a> <a href="Franz_Weidenreich" title="Franz Weidenreich">Franz Weidenreich</a>, who replaced Black in China after the latter's death in 1933, argued that Sinanthropus was also a transitional fossil between apes and humans, and was in fact so similar to Java's Pithecanthropus that they should both belong to the family <a href="Hominidae" title="Hominidae">Hominidae</a>. Eugène Dubois categorically refused to entertain this possibility, dismissing Peking Man as a kind of <a href="Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthal</a>, closer to humans than the Pithecanthropus, and insisting that Pithecanthropus belonged to its own <a href="Superfamily_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Superfamily (biology)">superfamily</a>, the Pithecanthropoidea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200074–76-17">[17]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_discoveries_on_Java">Other discoveries on Java</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Solo_Man" title="Solo Man">Solo Man</a>, <a href="Mojokerto_child" title="Mojokerto child">Mojokerto child</a>, and <a href="Sangiran" title="Sangiran">Sangiran</a></div>

After the discovery of Java Man, Berlin-born paleontologist <a href="Gustav_Heinrich_Ralph_von_Koenigswald" title="Gustav Heinrich Ralph von Koenigswald">G. H. R. von Koenigswald</a> recovered several other early human fossils in Java. Between 1931 and 1933 von Koenigswald discovered fossils of <a href="Solo_Man" title="Solo Man">Solo Man</a> from sites along the <a href="Bengawan_Solo_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Bengawan Solo River">Bengawan Solo River</a> on <a href="Java_(island)" class="mw-redirect" title="Java (island)">Java</a>, including several skullcaps and cranial fragments.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> In 1936, von Koenigswald discovered a juvenile skullcap known as the <a href="Mojokerto_child" title="Mojokerto child">Mojokerto child</a> in <a href="East_Java" title="East Java">East Java</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200042-19">[19]</a> Considering the Mojokerto child skull cap to be closely related to humans, von Koenigswald wanted to name it Pithecanthropus modjokertensis (after Dubois's specimen), but Dubois protested that Pithecanthropus was not a human but an "ape-man".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheunissen1989161–62-20">[20]</a>

Von Koenigswald also made several discoveries in <a href="Sangiran" title="Sangiran">Sangiran</a>, Central Java, where more fossils of early humans were discovered between 1936 and 1941.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Among the discoveries was <a href="Sangiran_2" title="Sangiran 2">a skullcap of similar size</a> to that found by Dubois at the Trinil 2 site. Von Koenigswald's discoveries in <a href="Sangiran" title="Sangiran">Sangiran</a> convinced him that all these skulls belonged to <a href="Early_human" class="mw-redirect" title="Early human">early humans</a>. Dubois again refused to acknowledge the similarity. Ralph von Koenigswald and Franz Weidenreich compared the fossils from Java and Zhoukoudian and concluded that Java Man and Peking Man were closely related.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheunissen1989161–62-20">[20]</a> Dubois died in 1940, still refusing to recognize their conclusion,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheunissen1989161–62-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200076–79-22">[22]</a> and official reports remain critical of the Sangiran site's poor presentation and interpretation.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_interpretations">Early interpretations</h2></div>

More than 50 years after Dubois's find, <a href="Ralph_von_Koenigswald" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralph von Koenigswald">Ralph von Koenigswald</a> recollected that, "No other paleontological discovery has created such a sensation and led to such a variety of conflicting scientific opinions."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200069,_citing_von_Koenigswald's_''Meeting_Prehistoric_Man''_(1956)-24">[24]</a> The Pithecanthropus fossils were so immediately controversial that by the end of the 1890s, almost 80 publications had already discussed them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200070-2">[2]</a>

Until the <a href="Taung_child" class="mw-redirect" title="Taung child">Taung child</a> – the 2.8 million-year-old remains of an <a href="Australopithecus_africanus" title="Australopithecus africanus">Australopithecus africanus</a> – were discovered in <a href="South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> in 1924, Dubois's and Koenigswald's discoveries were the oldest hominid remains ever found. Some scientists of the day suggested&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2014)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2005[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_July_2014]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2014)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-25">[25]</a> that Dubois's Java Man was a <a href="Transitional_fossil#Missing_links" title="Transitional fossil">potential intermediate form</a> between modern humans and the common ancestor we share with the other <a href="Great_ape" class="mw-redirect" title="Great ape">great apes</a>. The current consensus of anthropologists is that the direct ancestors of modern humans were African populations of <a href="Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a> (<a href="Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">Homo ergaster</a>), rather than the Asian populations of the same species exemplified by Java Man and <a href="Peking_Man" title="Peking Man">Peking Man</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHetheringtonReid2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidAAja8FTPF6QCpgPA64_64]-26">[26]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Missing_link_theory">Missing link theory</h3></div>

Dubois first published his find in 1894.<a href="#cite_note-Athena-27">[27]</a> Dubois's central claim was that Pithecanthropus was a <a href="Transitional_form" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional form">transitional form</a> between apes and humans, a so-called "<a href="Transitional_fossil#Missing_links" title="Transitional fossil">missing link</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Vos2004272SwisherCurtisLewin200069-28">[28]</a> Many disagreed. Some critics claimed that the bones were those of an upright walking ape, or that they belonged to a primitive human.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Vos2004272-29">[29]</a> This judgment made sense at a time when an <a href="Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">evolutionary view of humanity</a> had not yet been widely accepted, and scientists tended to view hominid fossils as racial variants of modern humans rather than as ancestral forms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200054-30">[30]</a> After Dubois let a number of scientists examine the fossils in a series of conferences held in Europe in the 1890s, they started to agree that Java Man may be a transitional form after all, but most of them thought of it as "an extinct side branch" of the human tree that had indeed descended from apes, but not evolved into humans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Vos2004272–73_["extinct_side_branch_of_human_evolution"]-31">[31]</a> This interpretation eventually imposed itself and remained dominant until the 1940s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmalzer2008258_["While_at_the_turn_of_the_century_a_linear_model_of_human_evolution_was_widely_accepted,_from_around_1910_to_the_1940s,_the_dominant_model_placed_fossil_hominids_like_Java_Man,_Peking_Man,_and_the_Neanderthals_on_side_branches_of_the_family_tree._These_'cousins'_were_understood_to_have_become_extinct,_replaced_by_our_unknown_direct_ancestors."]_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmalzer2008258_["While_at_the_turn_of_the_century_a_linear_model_of_human_evolution_was_widely_accepted,_from_around_1910_to_the_1940s,_the_dominant_model_placed_fossil_hominids_like_Java_Man,_Peking_Man,_and_the_Neanderthals_on_side_branches_of_the_family_tree._These_'cousins'_were_understood_to_have_become_extinct,_replaced_by_our_unknown_direct_ancestors."]-32">[32]</a>

Dubois was bitter about this and locked the fossil up in a trunk until 1923 when he showed it to Ales Hrdlicka from the Smithsonian Institution.<a href="#cite_note-Athena-27">[27]</a> In response to critics who refused to accept that Java Man was a "missing link", in 1932 Dubois published a paper arguing that the Trinil bones looked like those of a "giant gibbon".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheunissen1989152SwisherCurtisLewin200068Gould1993134-33">[33]</a> Dubois's use of the phrase has been widely misinterpreted as a retraction,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETheunissen1989152–56SwisherCurtisLewin200068_["The_second_popular_and_persistent_myth_about_Dubois_and_his_supposed_reaction_to_the_anthropological_world's_largely_negative_assessment_of_''Pithecanthropus''_as_a_putative_missing_link...._It_is_true..._that_Dubois's_proposition_found_little_support_among_professional_anthropologists&nbsp;..._But_the_rest_of_the_story,_about_Dubois's_supposed_withdrawal_and_craziness,_is_apocryphal..."]Gould1993134_["And_now..._I_may_finally_correct_the_last_and_most_insidious_claim_of_the_standard_legend—[that]_Dubois..._redesignates_his_once-proud_ancestor_as_nothing_but_a_giant_gibbon."]_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheunissen1989152–56SwisherCurtisLewin200068_["The_second_popular_and_persistent_myth_about_Dubois_and_his_supposed_reaction_to_the_anthropological_world's_largely_negative_assessment_of_''Pithecanthropus''_as_a_putative_missing_link...._It_is_true..._that_Dubois's_proposition_found_little_support_among_professional_anthropologists&nbsp;..._But_the_rest_of_the_story,_about_Dubois's_supposed_withdrawal_and_craziness,_is_apocryphal..."]Gould1993134_["And_now..._I_may_finally_correct_the_last_and_most_insidious_claim_of_the_standard_legend—[that]_Dubois..._redesignates_his_once-proud_ancestor_as_nothing_but_a_giant_gibbon."]-34">[34]</a> but it was intended an argument to support his claim that Pithecanthropus was a transitional form.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGould1993136_["Dubois's_ingenious_attempt_to_retain_''Pithecanthropus''_as_a_direct_human_ancestor_has_been_widely_misread_in_a_precisely_opposite_manner_as_an_ultimate_surrender,_almost_comical_in_its_transmogrification_of_a_human_forebear_into_a_giant_gibbon."]_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGould1993136_["Dubois's_ingenious_attempt_to_retain_''Pithecanthropus''_as_a_direct_human_ancestor_has_been_widely_misread_in_a_precisely_opposite_manner_as_an_ultimate_surrender,_almost_comical_in_its_transmogrification_of_a_human_forebear_into_a_giant_gibbon."]-35">[35]</a> According to Dubois, evolution occurred by leaps, and the ancestors of humanity had doubled their <a href="Brain-to-body_mass_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain-to-body mass ratio">brain-to-body ratio</a> on each leap.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGould1993133–34-36">[36]</a> To prove that Java Man was the "missing link" between apes and humans, he therefore had to show that its brain-to-body ratio was double that of apes and half that of humans. The problem was that Java Man's cranial capacity was 900 cubic centimeters, about two-thirds of modern humans'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGould1993135_["Dubois_desperately_wanted_''Pithecanthropus''_as_a_direct_ancestor_under_his_evolutionary_view._But_the_brain_of_Java_Man_ranked_with_embarrassing_bulk_at_some_900&nbsp;cm3,_or_two-thirds_human_volume."]_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGould1993135_["Dubois_desperately_wanted_''Pithecanthropus''_as_a_direct_ancestor_under_his_evolutionary_view._But_the_brain_of_Java_Man_ranked_with_embarrassing_bulk_at_some_900&nbsp;cm3,_or_two-thirds_human_volume."]-37">[37]</a>

Like many scientists who believed that modern humans evolved "Out of Asia", Dubois thought that gibbons were closest to humans among the great apes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200074_["In_common_with_other_anthropologists_of_the_time,_Dubois_believed_that_the_human_stock_was_rooted_in_some_kind_of_gibbonlike_ancestor."]_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200074_["In_common_with_other_anthropologists_of_the_time,_Dubois_believed_that_the_human_stock_was_rooted_in_some_kind_of_gibbonlike_ancestor."]-38">[38]</a> To preserve the proportions predicted by his theory of <a href="Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">brain evolution</a>, Dubois argued that Java Man was shaped more like a gibbon than a human. Imagined "with longer arms and a greatly expanded chest and upper body", the Trinil creature became a gigantic ape of about 100 kilograms (220 lb), but "double cephalization of the anthropoid apes in general and half that of man".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGould1993135_[the_second_citation_is_from_Dubois's_paper]-39">[39]</a> It was therefore halfway on the path to becoming a modern human.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETheunissen1989152–156SwisherCurtisLewin200074_["Because_Dubois_applied_the_name_'Giant_Gibbon'_to_this_creature,_many_people_took_it_to_mean_that_..._he_no_longer_considered_his_''Pithecanthropus''_to_be_linked_to_human_ancestry._..._By_describing_''Pithecanthropus''_as_a_giant_gibbon,_Dubois_simply_meant_that_it_was_closer_to_gibbons_than_to_humans_in_body_form._And,_he_pointed_out,_gibbons_and_humans_share_many_anatomical_features_that_relate_to_humans'_habitually_and_gibbons'_occasionally_upright_mode_of_walking."]Gould1993134–35_["Dubois_used_the_proportions_of_a_gibbon_to_give_''Pithecanthropus''_a_brain_at_exactly_half_our_level,_thereby_rendering_his_man_of_Java_..._as_the_direct_ancestor_of_all_modern_humans._He_argued_about_gibbons_to_exalt_''Pithecanthropus'',_not_to_demote_the_greatest_discovery_of_his_life."],_135–36_[citing_from_Dubois's_1932_paper:_"''Pithecanthropus''_was_not_a_man,_but_a_gigantic_genus_allied_to_the_gibbons,_however_superior_to_the_gibbons_on_account_of_its_ex" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheunissen1989152–156SwisherCurtisLewin200074_["Because_Dubois_applied_the_name_'Giant_Gibbon'_to_this_creature,_many_people_took_it_to_mean_that_..._he_no_longer_considered_his_''Pithecanthropus''_to_be_linked_to_human_ancestry._..._By_describing_''Pithecanthropus''_as_a_giant_gibbon,_Dubois_simply_meant_that_it_was_closer_to_gibbons_than_to_humans_in_body_form._And,_he_pointed_out,_gibbons_and_humans_share_many_anatomical_features_that_relate_to_humans'_habitually_and_gibbons'_occasionally_upright_mode_of_walking."]Gould1993134–35_["Dubois_used_the_proportions_of_a_gibbon_to_give_''Pithecanthropus''_a_brain_at_exactly_half_our_level,_thereby_rendering_his_man_of_Java_..._as_the_direct_ancestor_of_all_modern_humans._He_argued_about_gibbons_to_exalt_''Pithecanthropus'',_not_to_demote_the_greatest_discovery_of_his_life."],_135–36_[citing_from_Dubois's_1932_paper:_"''Pithecanthropus''_was_not_a_man,_but_a_gigantic_genus_allied_to_the_gibbons,_however_superior_to_the_gibbons_on_account_of_its_e">[40]</a> As Dubois concluded his 1932 paper: "I still believe, now more firmly than ever, that the Pithecanthropus of Trinil is the real 'missing link.'"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETheunissen1989156Gould1993136SwisherCurtisLewin200074_[all_three_sources_cite_Dubois's_phrase_to_show_that_he_never_abandoned_the_claim_that_Java_Man_was_a_"missing_link"]_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheunissen1989156Gould1993136SwisherCurtisLewin200074_[all_three_sources_cite_Dubois's_phrase_to_show_that_he_never_abandoned_the_claim_that_Java_Man_was_a_"missing_link"]-41">[41]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reclassification_as_Homo_erectus">Reclassification as Homo erectus</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></div>

Based on Weidenreich's work and on his suggestion that Pithecanthropus erectus and Sinanthropus pekinensis were connected through a series of <a href="Interbreeding" class="mw-redirect" title="Interbreeding">interbreeding</a> populations, German biologist <a href="Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a> reclassified them both as being part of the same species: <a href="Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoazCiochon200466–67-42">[42]</a> Mayr presented his conclusion at the <a href="Cold_Spring_Harbor_Symposium" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold Spring Harbor Symposium">Cold Spring Harbor Symposium</a> in 1950,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmalzer200898._The_original_paper_is_[[#CITEREFMayr1950|Mayr_1950]]-43">[43]</a> and this resulted in Dubois's erectus species being reclassified under the <a href="Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> Homo. As part of the reclassification, Mayr included not only Sinanthropus and Pithecanthropus, but also Plesianthropus, Paranthropus, Javanthropus, and several other genera as <a href="Synonym_(taxonomy)" title="Synonym (taxonomy)">synonyms</a>, arguing that all human ancestors were part of a single genus (Homo), and that "never one more than one species of man existed on the earth at any one time".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelisle2007298,_citing_Mayr's_1950_paper-44">[44]</a> A "revolution in taxonomy", Mayr's single-species approach to human evolution was quickly accepted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoazCiochon200467-45">[45]</a> It shaped <a href="Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">paleoanthropology</a> in the 1950s and lasted into the 1970s, when the African genus <a href="Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a> was accepted into the human <a href="Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">evolutionary tree</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmalzer200898_["the_"single-species"_thesis_to_which_he_was_committed_became_the_theoretical_foundation_for_paleoanthropology_for_years_to_come"]BoazCiochon200467_["was_to_sweep_anthropology_in_the_1950s"&nbsp;..._"Thus_was_born_the_single-species_hypothesis,_a_powerful_model_that_endured_until_the_late_1970s_when_fossil_discoveries_in_Africa_disproved_it,_at_least_for_the_early_part_of_the_hominid_fossil_record"]_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmalzer200898_["the_"single-species"_thesis_to_which_he_was_committed_became_the_theoretical_foundation_for_paleoanthropology_for_years_to_come"]BoazCiochon200467_["was_to_sweep_anthropology_in_the_1950s"&nbsp;..._"Thus_was_born_the_single-species_hypothesis,_a_powerful_model_that_endured_until_the_late_1970s_when_fossil_discoveries_in_Africa_disproved_it,_at_least_for_the_early_part_of_the_hominid_fossil_record"]-46">[46]</a>

In the 1970s, a tendency developed to regard the Javanese variety of H. erectus as a subspecies, Homo erectus erectus, with the Chinese variety being referred to as Homo erectus pekinensis.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-discovery_analysis">Post-discovery analysis</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Date_of_the_fossils">Date of the fossils</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Stratigraphy_(archaeology)" title="Stratigraphy (archaeology)">Stratigraphy (archaeology)</a></div>

Dubois's complete collection of fossils were transferred between 1895 and 1900 to what is now known as <a href="Naturalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalis">Naturalis</a>, in <a href="Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a> in the <a href="Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> The main fossil of Java Man, the skullcap cataloged as "Trinil 2", has been dated <a href="Biostratigraphy" title="Biostratigraphy">biostratigraphically</a>, that is, by correlating it with a group of fossilized animals (a "<a href="Faunal_assemblage" title="Faunal assemblage">faunal assemblage</a>") found nearby on the same <a href="Horizon_(geology)" title="Horizon (geology)">geological horizon</a>, which is itself compared with assemblages from other layers and classified chronologically. Ralph von Koenigswald first assigned Java Man to the <a href="Trinil_Fauna" title="Trinil Fauna">Trinil Fauna</a>, a faunal assemblage that he composed from several Javanese sites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Vos2004275-50">[50]</a> He concluded that the skullcap was about 700,000 years old, thus dating from the beginning of the <a href="Middle_Pleistocene" title="Middle Pleistocene">Middle Pleistocene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaifu_et_al.2010145de_Vos2004274–75-51">[51]</a>

Though this view is still widely accepted, in the 1980s, a group of Dutch <a href="Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontologists</a> used Dubois's collection of more than 20,000 animal fossils to reassess the date of the layer in which Java Man was found.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaifu_et_al.2010145-52">[52]</a> Using only fossils from Trinil, they called that new faunal assemblage the <a href="Trinil_H._K._Fauna" title="Trinil H. K. Fauna">Trinil H. K. Fauna</a>, in which H. K. stands for Haupt Knochenschicht, or "main fossil-bearing layer".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Vos2004275–76_[explanation_of_the_Trinil_H._K._Fauna]Zaim2010103_[Trinil_H._K._Fauna,_citing_[[#CITEREFde_Vos_et_al.1982|de_Vos_et_al._1982]]_and_[[#CITEREFde_VosSondaar1994|de_Vos_&amp;_Sondaar_1994]]]_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Vos2004275–76_[explanation_of_the_Trinil_H._K._Fauna]Zaim2010103_[Trinil_H._K._Fauna,_citing_[[#CITEREFde_Vos_et_al.1982|de_Vos_et_al._1982]]_and_[[#CITEREFde_VosSondaar1994|de_Vos_&amp;_Sondaar_1994]]]-53">[53]</a> This assessment dates the fossils of Java Man to between 900,000 and 1,000,000 years old.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDennell2010155-54">[54]</a> On the other hand, work published in 2014 gives a "maximum age of 0.54 ± 0.10 million years and a minimum age of 0.43 ± 0.05 million years" for Ar-Ar and luminescence dating of sediment in human-predated shell material from Trinil.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Work continues on assessing the dating of this complex site.

Other fossils attest to the even earlier presence of H. erectus in Java. <a href="Sangiran_2" title="Sangiran 2">Sangiran 2</a> (named after <a href="Sangiran" title="Sangiran">its discovery site</a>) may be as old as 1.66 <a href="Megaannum" class="mw-redirect" title="Megaannum">Ma</a> (million years). The controversial <a href="Mojokerto_child" title="Mojokerto child">Mojokerto child</a>, which Carl C. Swisher and <a href="Garniss_Curtis" title="Garniss Curtis">Garniss Curtis</a> once dated to 1.81 ± 0.04 Ma, has now been convincingly re-dated to a maximum age of 1.49 ± 0.13 Ma, that is, 1.49 million years with a margin of error of plus or minus 130,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDennell2009155_["The_maximum_age_of_this_specimen_is_thus_1.49_million_years,_and_not_1.81_million_years,_as_implied_by_[[#CITEREFSwisher_et_al.1994|Swisher_et_al._1994]]"]Ciochon2010112_["As_the_relocated_discovery_bed_proved_to_be_~20&nbsp;m_above_the_horizon_that_[[#CITEREFSwisher_et_al.1994|Swisher_et_al._1994]]_dated,_the_skull_is_certainly_younger_than_had_been_previously_reported"_([[#CITEREFHuffman_et_al.2006|Huffman_et_al._2006]])"]Rabett201226_["the_1994_estimate_of_its_age_has_now_been_credibly_refuted_([[#CITEREFHuffman_et_al.2006|Huffman_et_al._2006]])"]Dennell2010266_["the_recent_re-discovery_of_the_precise_provenance_of_the_Mojokerto_cranium_that_is_now_dated_to_a_maximum_of_1.49_Ma_([[#CITEREFMorwood_et_al.2003|Morwood_et_al._2003]])_clarifies_long-standing_uncertainties_over_the_age_of_this_important_specimen"]_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDennell2009155_["The_maximum_age_of_this_specimen_is_thus_1.49_million_years,_and_not_1.81_million_years,_as_implied_by_[[#CITEREFSwisher_et_al.1994|Swisher_et_al._1994]]"]Ciochon2010112_["As_the_relocated_discovery_bed_proved_to_be_~20&nbsp;m_above_the_horizon_that_[[#CITEREFSwisher_et_al.1994|Swisher_et_al._1994]]_dated,_the_skull_is_certainly_younger_than_had_been_previously_reported"_([[#CITEREFHuffman_et_al.2006|Huffman_et_al._2006]])"]Rabett201226_["the_1994_estimate_of_its_age_has_now_been_credibly_refuted_([[#CITEREFHuffman_et_al.2006|Huffman_et_al._2006]])"]Dennell2010266_["the_recent_re-discovery_of_the_precise_provenance_of_the_Mojokerto_cranium_that_is_now_dated_to_a_maximum_of_1.49_Ma_([[#CITEREFMorwood_et_al.2003|Morwood_et_al._2003]])_clarifies_long-standing_uncertainties_over_the_age_of_this_important_specimen"]-56">[56]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Type_specimen">Type specimen</h3></div>

The fossils found in Java are considered the <a href="Type_specimen" class="mw-redirect" title="Type specimen">type specimen</a> for H. erectus. Because the fossils of Java Man were found "scattered in an <a href="Alluvial_deposit" class="mw-redirect" title="Alluvial deposit">alluvial deposit</a>" – they had been laid there by the flow of a river – detractors doubted that they belonged to the same species, let alone the same individual.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmalzer200834-57">[57]</a> German <a href="Pathologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathologist">pathologist</a> <a href="Rudolf_Virchow" title="Rudolf Virchow">Rudolf Virchow</a>, for instance, argued in 1895 that the femur was that of a gibbon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGould1993135-58">[58]</a> Dubois had difficulty convincing his critics, because he had not attended the excavation, and could not explain specifically enough the exact location of the bones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200069-59">[59]</a> Because the Trinil thighbone looks very much like that of a modern human, it might have been a "<a href="Reworked_fossil" class="mw-redirect" title="Reworked fossil">reworked fossil</a>", that is, a relatively young fossil that was deposited into an older layer after its own layer had been eroded. For this reason, there is still dissent about whether all the Trinil fossils represent the same species.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDennell2009159–61-60">[60]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_characteristics">Physical characteristics</h2></div>

Java Man was about 173 cm (5 ft 8 in) tall and his thighbones show that he <a href="Walking" title="Walking">walked erect</a> like modern humans.<a href="#cite_note-EB-9">[9]</a> The femur is thicker than that of a modern human, indicating he was engaging in a lot of running.<a href="#cite_note-Athena-27">[27]</a> The skull was characterized by thick bones and a retreating forehead. The large teeth made the jaw large and jutting, with the lower lips overhanging the lower margin of the mandible, giving the impression of no chin. The <a href="Supraorbital_ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Supraorbital ridge">browridges</a> were straight and massive. At 900 cm3, his <a href="Brain_size" title="Brain size">cranial capacity</a> was smaller than that of later H. erectus specimens. However, he had humanlike teeth with large canines.<a href="#cite_note-EB-9">[9]</a>

Judging from anatomical and archeological aspects as well as Java Man's ecological role, meat from vertebrates was likely an important part of their diet. Java Man, like other Homo erectus, was probably a rare species.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> There is evidence that Java Man used shell tools to cut meat.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Java Man's dispersal through Southeast Asia coincides with the extirpation of the giant turtle <a href="Megalochelys" title="Megalochelys">Megalochelys</a>, possibly due to overhunting as the turtle would have been an easy, slow-moving target which could have been stored for quite some time.<a href="#cite_note-:0-63">[63]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Material_culture">Material culture</h2></div>

H. erectus arrived in Eurasia approximately 1.8 million years ago, in an event considered to be the first African exodus.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> There is evidence that the Java population of H. erectus lived in an ever-wet forest habitat. More specifically the environment resembled a <a href="Savannah" class="mw-redirect" title="Savannah">savannah</a>, but was likely regularly inundated ("hydromorphic savanna"). The plants found at the Trinil excavation site included grass (<a href="Poaceae" title="Poaceae">Poaceae</a>), <a href="Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a>, <a href="Ficus" title="Ficus">Ficus</a>, and <a href="Indigofera" title="Indigofera">Indigofera</a>, which are typical of lowland rainforest.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Control_of_fire">Control of fire</h3></div>

The <a href="Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">control of fire by Homo erectus</a> is generally accepted by archaeologists to have begun some 400,000 years ago,<a href="#cite_note-James-66">[66]</a> with claims regarding earlier evidence finding increasing scientific support.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Burned wood has been found in layers that carried the Java Man fossils in <a href="Trinil" title="Trinil">Trinil</a>, dating to around from 500,000 to 830,000 BP. However, because Central Java is a volcanic region, the charring may have resulted from natural fires, and there is no conclusive proof that Homo erectus in Java controlled fire.<a href="#cite_note-James-66">[66]</a> It has been proposed that frequent natural fires may have allowed Java Man "opportunistic use [... that] did not create an archeologically visible pattern".<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a>

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<ul><li><a href="Anthropopithecus" title="Anthropopithecus">Anthropopithecus</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_fossil_sites" title="List of fossil sites">List of fossil sites</a> (with link directory)</li>

<li><a href="Sundaland" title="Sundaland">Sundaland</a>: Pleistocene Java was part of this large peninsula attached to the Asian continent</li>

<li><a href="Trinil_tiger" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinil tiger">Trinil tiger</a>: an extinct mammal found in the same site as Java Man</li>

<li><a href="Meganthropus" title="Meganthropus">Meganthropus</a>: the mysterious giant java man whose fossils were found in Sangiran</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFUetrakulwit2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Uetrakulwit, Prasit Uetrakulwit (2020). Basic History 2008 For students (in Thai) (1st ed.). Nonthaburi Province, Thailand, Pak Kret District, Ban Mai Subdistrict, Phra Mae Karun Alley: Aimphan press co. Ltd. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-616-07-1454-4</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200070-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200070_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200070_2-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSwisherCurtisLewin2000">Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000</a>, p. 70.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200058–59-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200058–59_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSwisherCurtisLewin2000">Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000</a>, pp. 58–59.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200058de_Vos2004270-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200058de_Vos2004270_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSwisherCurtisLewin2000">Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000</a>, p. 58; <a href="#CITEREFde_Vos2004">de Vos 2004</a>, p. 270.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200059_["unorthodox"_venture;_was_refused_government_funding;_hired_as_medical_officer]_and_61_["he_was_the_first_person_to_set_out_on_a_deliberate_search_for_fossils_of_human_ancestors"]-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200059_["unorthodox"_venture;_was_refused_government_funding;_hired_as_medical_officer]_and_61_["he_was_the_first_person_to_set_out_on_a_deliberate_search_for_fossils_of_human_ancestors"]_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSwisherCurtisLewin2000">Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000</a>, p. 59 ["unorthodox" venture; was refused government funding; hired as medical officer] and 61 ["he was the first person to set out on a deliberate search for fossils of human ancestors"].

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200061-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200061_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSwisherCurtisLewin2000">Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000</a>, p. 61.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200061–62-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200061–62_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSwisherCurtisLewin2000">Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000</a>, pp. 61–62.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETheunissen198941–43-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETheunissen198941–43_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTheunissen1989">Theunissen 1989</a>, pp. 41–43.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-EB-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB_9-2">c</a> <cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/301721/Java-man">"Java Man (extinct hominid)"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. britannica.com. Retrieved 2013-06-05.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Vos2004272_[citation_from_an_assessment_Dubois_made_in_1893]SwisherCurtisLewin200061_[name_''Anthropopithecus'']-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Vos2004272_[citation_from_an_assessment_Dubois_made_in_1893]SwisherCurtisLewin200061_[name_''Anthropopithecus'']_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFde_Vos2004">de Vos 2004</a>, p. 272 [citation from an assessment Dubois made in 1893]; <a href="#CITEREFSwisherCurtisLewin2000">Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000</a>, p. 61 [name Anthropopithecus].

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200067-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200067_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSwisherCurtisLewin2000">Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000</a>, p. 67.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Mai, Larry L., Marcus Young Owl, M. Patricia Kersting. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ured-douala.com/download/The_Cambridge_Dictionary_of_Human_Biology_And_Evolution.pdf">The Cambridge Dictionary of Human Biology and Evolution</a>, Cambridge University Press 2005, p. 30

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200066–7-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200066–7_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSwisherCurtisLewin2000">Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000</a>, pp. 66–7.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/fossils/trinil-2">"Images of Trinil 2"</a>. 25 January 2010. Retrieved 2013-02-08.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200075-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200075_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSwisherCurtisLewin2000">Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000</a>, p. 75.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmalzer200844–45_[date_of_discovery]SwisherCurtisLewin2000-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmalzer200844–45_[date_of_discovery]SwisherCurtisLewin2000_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchmalzer2008">Schmalzer 2008</a>, pp. 44–45 [date of discovery]; <a href="#CITEREFSwisherCurtisLewin2000">Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200074–76-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200074–76_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSwisherCurtisLewin2000">Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000</a>, pp. 74–76.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSchwartzTattersall2005" class="citation book cs1">Schwartz, Jeffrey H.; Tattersall, Ian (2005). The Human Fossil Record, Craniodental Morphology of Genus Homo (Africa and Asia). John Wiley & Sons. p. 450.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200042-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200042_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSwisherCurtisLewin2000">Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000</a>, p. 42.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETheunissen1989161–62-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETheunissen1989161–62_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETheunissen1989161–62_20-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETheunissen1989161–62_20-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFTheunissen1989">Theunissen 1989</a>, pp. 161–62.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=593">"Sangiran Early Man Site"</a>. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 2014-07-02.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200076–79-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200076–79_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSwisherCurtisLewin2000">Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000</a>, pp. 76–79.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFUNESCO_World_Heritage_Committee2002" class="citation cs2">UNESCO World Heritage Committee (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2002/whc-02-conf202-17reve.pdf">State of conservation of properties inscribed on the World Heritage List</a> (PDF), pp. 29–30</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200069,_citing_von_Koenigswald's_''Meeting_Prehistoric_Man''_(1956)-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200069,_citing_von_Koenigswald's_''Meeting_Prehistoric_Man''_(1956)_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSwisherCurtisLewin2000">Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000</a>, p. 69, citing von Koenigswald's Meeting Prehistoric Man (1956).

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2005[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_July_2014]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2014)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwartz2005[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_July_2014]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2014)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchwartz2005">Schwartz 2005</a>, p. .

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHetheringtonReid2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidAAja8FTPF6QCpgPA64_64]-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHetheringtonReid2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidAAja8FTPF6QCpgPA64_64]_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHetheringtonReid2010">Hetherington & Reid 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AAja8FTPF6QC&pg=PA64">64</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Athena-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Athena_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Athena_27-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Athena_27-2">c</a> <cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100514083346/http://www.athenapub.com/13dubox1.htm">"The Discovery of Java Man in 1891"</a>. Athena Review. Vol. 4, no. 1: Homo erectus. p. 15. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.athenapub.com/13dubox1.htm">the original</a> on 2010-05-14.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Vos2004272SwisherCurtisLewin200069-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Vos2004272SwisherCurtisLewin200069_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFde_Vos2004">de Vos 2004</a>, p. 272; <a href="#CITEREFSwisherCurtisLewin2000">Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000</a>, p. 69.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Vos2004272-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Vos2004272_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFde_Vos2004">de Vos 2004</a>, p. 272.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200054-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200054_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSwisherCurtisLewin2000">Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000</a>, p. 54.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Vos2004272–73_["extinct_side_branch_of_human_evolution"]-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Vos2004272–73_["extinct_side_branch_of_human_evolution"]_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFde_Vos2004">de Vos 2004</a>, pp. 272–73 ["extinct side branch of human evolution"].

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmalzer2008258_["While_at_the_turn_of_the_century_a_linear_model_of_human_evolution_was_widely_accepted,_from_around_1910_to_the_1940s,_the_dominant_model_placed_fossil_hominids_like_Java_Man,_Peking_Man,_and_the_Neanderthals_on_side_branches_of_the_family_tree._These_'cousins'_were_understood_to_have_become_extinct,_replaced_by_our_unknown_direct_ancestors."]-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmalzer2008258_["While_at_the_turn_of_the_century_a_linear_model_of_human_evolution_was_widely_accepted,_from_around_1910_to_the_1940s,_the_dominant_model_placed_fossil_hominids_like_Java_Man,_Peking_Man,_and_the_Neanderthals_on_side_branches_of_the_family_tree._These_'cousins'_were_understood_to_have_become_extinct,_replaced_by_our_unknown_direct_ancestors."]_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchmalzer2008">Schmalzer 2008</a>, p. 258 ["While at the turn of the century a linear model of human evolution was widely accepted, from around 1910 to the 1940s, the dominant model placed fossil hominids like Java Man, Peking Man, and the Neanderthals on side branches of the family tree. These 'cousins' were understood to have become extinct, replaced by our unknown direct ancestors."].

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETheunissen1989152SwisherCurtisLewin200068Gould1993134-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETheunissen1989152SwisherCurtisLewin200068Gould1993134_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTheunissen1989">Theunissen 1989</a>, p. 152; <a href="#CITEREFSwisherCurtisLewin2000">Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000</a>, p. 68; <a href="#CITEREFGould1993">Gould 1993</a>, p. 134.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETheunissen1989152–56SwisherCurtisLewin200068_["The_second_popular_and_persistent_myth_about_Dubois_and_his_supposed_reaction_to_the_anthropological_world's_largely_negative_assessment_of_''Pithecanthropus''_as_a_putative_missing_link...._It_is_true..._that_Dubois's_proposition_found_little_support_among_professional_anthropologists&nbsp;..._But_the_rest_of_the_story,_about_Dubois's_supposed_withdrawal_and_craziness,_is_apocryphal..."]Gould1993134_["And_now..._I_may_finally_correct_the_last_and_most_insidious_claim_of_the_standard_legend—[that]_Dubois..._redesignates_his_once-proud_ancestor_as_nothing_but_a_giant_gibbon."]-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETheunissen1989152–56SwisherCurtisLewin200068_["The_second_popular_and_persistent_myth_about_Dubois_and_his_supposed_reaction_to_the_anthropological_world's_largely_negative_assessment_of_''Pithecanthropus''_as_a_putative_missing_link...._It_is_true..._that_Dubois's_proposition_found_little_support_among_professional_anthropologists&nbsp;..._But_the_rest_of_the_story,_about_Dubois's_supposed_withdrawal_and_craziness,_is_apocryphal..."]Gould1993134_["And_now..._I_may_finally_correct_the_last_and_most_insidious_claim_of_the_standard_legend—[that]_Dubois..._redesignates_his_once-proud_ancestor_as_nothing_but_a_giant_gibbon."]_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTheunissen1989">Theunissen 1989</a>, pp. 152–56; <a href="#CITEREFSwisherCurtisLewin2000">Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000</a>, p. 68 ["The second popular and persistent myth about Dubois and his supposed reaction to the anthropological world's largely negative assessment of Pithecanthropus as a putative missing link.... It is true... that Dubois's proposition found little support among professional anthropologists ... But the rest of the story, about Dubois's supposed withdrawal and craziness, is apocryphal..."]; <a href="#CITEREFGould1993">Gould 1993</a>, p. 134 ["And now... I may finally correct the last and most insidious claim of the standard legend—[that] Dubois... redesignates his once-proud ancestor as nothing but a giant gibbon."].

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGould1993136_["Dubois's_ingenious_attempt_to_retain_''Pithecanthropus''_as_a_direct_human_ancestor_has_been_widely_misread_in_a_precisely_opposite_manner_as_an_ultimate_surrender,_almost_comical_in_its_transmogrification_of_a_human_forebear_into_a_giant_gibbon."]-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGould1993136_["Dubois's_ingenious_attempt_to_retain_''Pithecanthropus''_as_a_direct_human_ancestor_has_been_widely_misread_in_a_precisely_opposite_manner_as_an_ultimate_surrender,_almost_comical_in_its_transmogrification_of_a_human_forebear_into_a_giant_gibbon."]_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGould1993">Gould 1993</a>, p. 136 ["Dubois's ingenious attempt to retain Pithecanthropus as a direct human ancestor has been widely misread in a precisely opposite manner as an ultimate surrender, almost comical in its transmogrification of a human forebear into a giant gibbon."].

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGould1993133–34-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGould1993133–34_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGould1993">Gould 1993</a>, pp. 133–34.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGould1993135_["Dubois_desperately_wanted_''Pithecanthropus''_as_a_direct_ancestor_under_his_evolutionary_view._But_the_brain_of_Java_Man_ranked_with_embarrassing_bulk_at_some_900&nbsp;cm3,_or_two-thirds_human_volume."]-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGould1993135_["Dubois_desperately_wanted_''Pithecanthropus''_as_a_direct_ancestor_under_his_evolutionary_view._But_the_brain_of_Java_Man_ranked_with_embarrassing_bulk_at_some_900&nbsp;cm3,_or_two-thirds_human_volume."]_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGould1993">Gould 1993</a>, p. 135 ["Dubois desperately wanted Pithecanthropus as a direct ancestor under his evolutionary view. But the brain of Java Man ranked with embarrassing bulk at some 900 cm3, or two-thirds human volume."].

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200074_["In_common_with_other_anthropologists_of_the_time,_Dubois_believed_that_the_human_stock_was_rooted_in_some_kind_of_gibbonlike_ancestor."]-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200074_["In_common_with_other_anthropologists_of_the_time,_Dubois_believed_that_the_human_stock_was_rooted_in_some_kind_of_gibbonlike_ancestor."]_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSwisherCurtisLewin2000">Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000</a>, p. 74 ["In common with other anthropologists of the time, Dubois believed that the human stock was rooted in some kind of gibbonlike ancestor."].

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGould1993135_[the_second_citation_is_from_Dubois's_paper]-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGould1993135_[the_second_citation_is_from_Dubois's_paper]_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGould1993">Gould 1993</a>, p. 135 [the second citation is from Dubois's paper].

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETheunissen1989152–156SwisherCurtisLewin200074_["Because_Dubois_applied_the_name_'Giant_Gibbon'_to_this_creature,_many_people_took_it_to_mean_that_..._he_no_longer_considered_his_''Pithecanthropus''_to_be_linked_to_human_ancestry._..._By_describing_''Pithecanthropus''_as_a_giant_gibbon,_Dubois_simply_meant_that_it_was_closer_to_gibbons_than_to_humans_in_body_form._And,_he_pointed_out,_gibbons_and_humans_share_many_anatomical_features_that_relate_to_humans'_habitually_and_gibbons'_occasionally_upright_mode_of_walking."]Gould1993134–35_["Dubois_used_the_proportions_of_a_gibbon_to_give_''Pithecanthropus''_a_brain_at_exactly_half_our_level,_thereby_rendering_his_man_of_Java_..._as_the_direct_ancestor_of_all_modern_humans._He_argued_about_gibbons_to_exalt_''Pithecanthropus'',_not_to_demote_the_greatest_discovery_of_his_life."],_135–36_[citing_from_Dubois's_1932_paper:_"''Pithecanthropus''_was_not_a_man,_but_a_gigantic_genus_allied_to_the_gibbons,_however_superior_to_the_gibbons_on_account_of_its_e"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETheunissen1989152–156SwisherCurtisLewin200074_["Because_Dubois_applied_the_name_'Giant_Gibbon'_to_this_creature,_many_people_took_it_to_mean_that_..._he_no_longer_considered_his_''Pithecanthropus''_to_be_linked_to_human_ancestry._..._By_describing_''Pithecanthropus''_as_a_giant_gibbon,_Dubois_simply_meant_that_it_was_closer_to_gibbons_than_to_humans_in_body_form._And,_he_pointed_out,_gibbons_and_humans_share_many_anatomical_features_that_relate_to_humans'_habitually_and_gibbons'_occasionally_upright_mode_of_walking."]Gould1993134–35_["Dubois_used_the_proportions_of_a_gibbon_to_give_''Pithecanthropus''_a_brain_at_exactly_half_our_level,_thereby_rendering_his_man_of_Java_..._as_the_direct_ancestor_of_all_modern_humans._He_argued_about_gibbons_to_exalt_''Pithecanthropus'',_not_to_demote_the_greatest_discovery_of_his_life."],_135–36_[citing_from_Dubois's_1932_paper:_"''Pithecanthropus''_was_not_a_man,_but_a_gigantic_genus_allied_to_the_gibbons,_however_superior_to_the_gibbons_on_account_of_its_ex">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTheunissen1989">Theunissen 1989</a>, pp. 152–156; <a href="#CITEREFSwisherCurtisLewin2000">Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000</a>, p. 74 ["Because Dubois applied the name 'Giant Gibbon' to this creature, many people took it to mean that ... he no longer considered his Pithecanthropus to be linked to human ancestry. ... By describing Pithecanthropus as a giant gibbon, Dubois simply meant that it was closer to gibbons than to humans in body form. And, he pointed out, gibbons and humans share many anatomical features that relate to humans' habitually and gibbons' occasionally upright mode of walking."]; <a href="#CITEREFGould1993">Gould 1993</a>, pp. 134–35 ["Dubois used the proportions of a gibbon to give Pithecanthropus a brain at exactly half our level, thereby rendering his man of Java ... as the direct ancestor of all modern humans. He argued about gibbons to exalt Pithecanthropus, not to demote the greatest discovery of his life."], 135–36 [citing from Dubois's 1932 paper: "Pithecanthropus was not a man, but a gigantic genus allied to the gibbons, however superior to the gibbons on account of its exceedingly large brain volume and distinguished at the same time by its faculty of assuming an erect attitude and gait. It had the double cephalization of the anthropoid apes in general and half that of man."] and 136 [... "Dubois never said that Pithecanthropus was a gibbon (and therefore the lumbering, almost comical dead end of the legend), rather, he reconstructed Java Man with the proportions of a gibbon in order to inflate the body weight and transform his beloved creature into a direct human ancestor—its highest possible status—under his curious theory of evolution."].

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETheunissen1989156Gould1993136SwisherCurtisLewin200074_[all_three_sources_cite_Dubois's_phrase_to_show_that_he_never_abandoned_the_claim_that_Java_Man_was_a_"missing_link"]-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETheunissen1989156Gould1993136SwisherCurtisLewin200074_[all_three_sources_cite_Dubois's_phrase_to_show_that_he_never_abandoned_the_claim_that_Java_Man_was_a_"missing_link"]_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTheunissen1989">Theunissen 1989</a>, p. 156; <a href="#CITEREFGould1993">Gould 1993</a>, p. 136; <a href="#CITEREFSwisherCurtisLewin2000">Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000</a>, p. 74 [all three sources cite Dubois's phrase to show that he never abandoned the claim that Java Man was a "missing link"].

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoazCiochon200466–67-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoazCiochon200466–67_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoazCiochon2004">Boaz & Ciochon 2004</a>, pp. 66–67.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmalzer200898._The_original_paper_is_[[#CITEREFMayr1950|Mayr_1950]]-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmalzer200898._The_original_paper_is_[[#CITEREFMayr1950|Mayr_1950]]_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchmalzer2008">Schmalzer 2008</a>, p. 98. The original paper is <a href="#CITEREFMayr1950">Mayr 1950</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelisle2007298,_citing_Mayr's_1950_paper-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelisle2007298,_citing_Mayr's_1950_paper_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDelisle2007">Delisle 2007</a>, p. 298, citing Mayr's 1950 paper.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoazCiochon200467-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoazCiochon200467_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoazCiochon2004">Boaz & Ciochon 2004</a>, p. 67.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmalzer200898_["the_"single-species"_thesis_to_which_he_was_committed_became_the_theoretical_foundation_for_paleoanthropology_for_years_to_come"]BoazCiochon200467_["was_to_sweep_anthropology_in_the_1950s"&nbsp;..._"Thus_was_born_the_single-species_hypothesis,_a_powerful_model_that_endured_until_the_late_1970s_when_fossil_discoveries_in_Africa_disproved_it,_at_least_for_the_early_part_of_the_hominid_fossil_record"]-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmalzer200898_["the_"single-species"_thesis_to_which_he_was_committed_became_the_theoretical_foundation_for_paleoanthropology_for_years_to_come"]BoazCiochon200467_["was_to_sweep_anthropology_in_the_1950s"&nbsp;..._"Thus_was_born_the_single-species_hypothesis,_a_powerful_model_that_endured_until_the_late_1970s_when_fossil_discoveries_in_Africa_disproved_it,_at_least_for_the_early_part_of_the_hominid_fossil_record"]_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchmalzer2008">Schmalzer 2008</a>, p. 98 ["the "single-species" thesis to which he was committed became the theoretical foundation for paleoanthropology for years to come"]; <a href="#CITEREFBoazCiochon2004">Boaz & Ciochon 2004</a>, p. 67 ["was to sweep anthropology in the 1950s" ... "Thus was born the single-species hypothesis, a powerful model that endured until the late 1970s when fossil discoveries in Africa disproved it, at least for the early part of the hominid fossil record"].

</li>

<li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSartono1975" class="citation book cs1">Sartono, S. (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ejsyIZMsC9oC&pg=PA327">"Implications arising from Pithecanthropus VIII"</a>. In Russell H. Tuttle (ed.). Paleoanthropology: Morphology and Paleoecology. Mouton & Co. p. 328. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-90-279-7699-4</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Joordens2015-48"><a href="#cite_ref-Joordens2015_48-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJoordensd’ErricoWesselinghMunro2015" class="citation journal cs1">Joordens, Josephine C. A.; d’Errico, Francesco; Wesselingh, Frank P.; Munro, Stephen; de Vos, John; Wallinga, Jakob; Ankjærgaard, Christina; Reimann, Tony; Wijbrans, Jan R.; Kuiper, Klaudia F.; Mücher, Herman J. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature13962">"Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving"</a>. Nature. 518 (7538): 228–231. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Natur.518..228J">2015Natur.518..228J</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature13962">10.1038/nature13962</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25470048">25470048</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4461751">4461751</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFde_Vois" class="citation web cs1">de Vois, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/43875">"The Dubois collection: a new look at an old collection"</a>. Naturalis.nl. Retrieved 2014-12-03.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Vos2004275-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Vos2004275_50-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFde_Vos2004">de Vos 2004</a>, p. 275.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaifu_et_al.2010145de_Vos2004274–75-51"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaifu_et_al.2010145de_Vos2004274–75_51-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaifu_et_al.2010">Kaifu et al. 2010</a>, p. 145; <a href="#CITEREFde_Vos2004">de Vos 2004</a>, pp. 274–75.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaifu_et_al.2010145-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaifu_et_al.2010145_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaifu_et_al.2010">Kaifu et al. 2010</a>, p. 145.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Vos2004275–76_[explanation_of_the_Trinil_H._K._Fauna]Zaim2010103_[Trinil_H._K._Fauna,_citing_[[#CITEREFde_Vos_et_al.1982|de_Vos_et_al._1982]]_and_[[#CITEREFde_VosSondaar1994|de_Vos_&amp;_Sondaar_1994]]]-53"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Vos2004275–76_[explanation_of_the_Trinil_H._K._Fauna]Zaim2010103_[Trinil_H._K._Fauna,_citing_[[#CITEREFde_Vos_et_al.1982|de_Vos_et_al._1982]]_and_[[#CITEREFde_VosSondaar1994|de_Vos_&amp;_Sondaar_1994]]]_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFde_Vos2004">de Vos 2004</a>, pp. 275–76 [explanation of the Trinil H. K. Fauna]; <a href="#CITEREFZaim2010">Zaim 2010</a>, p. 103 [Trinil H. K. Fauna, citing <a href="#CITEREFde_Vos_et_al.1982">de Vos et al. 1982</a> and <a href="#CITEREFde_VosSondaar1994">de Vos & Sondaar 1994</a>].

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDennell2010155-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDennell2010155_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDennell2010">Dennell 2010</a>, p. 155.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJoordens2015" class="citation journal cs1">Joordens, J. C. A.; et al. (12 February 2015) [Epub: 2014 Dec 3]. "Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving". Nature. 518 (7538): 228–31. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Natur.518..228J">2015Natur.518..228J</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature13962">10.1038/nature13962</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25470048">25470048</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4461751">4461751</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDennell2009155_["The_maximum_age_of_this_specimen_is_thus_1.49_million_years,_and_not_1.81_million_years,_as_implied_by_[[#CITEREFSwisher_et_al.1994|Swisher_et_al._1994]]"]Ciochon2010112_["As_the_relocated_discovery_bed_proved_to_be_~20&nbsp;m_above_the_horizon_that_[[#CITEREFSwisher_et_al.1994|Swisher_et_al._1994]]_dated,_the_skull_is_certainly_younger_than_had_been_previously_reported"_([[#CITEREFHuffman_et_al.2006|Huffman_et_al._2006]])"]Rabett201226_["the_1994_estimate_of_its_age_has_now_been_credibly_refuted_([[#CITEREFHuffman_et_al.2006|Huffman_et_al._2006]])"]Dennell2010266_["the_recent_re-discovery_of_the_precise_provenance_of_the_Mojokerto_cranium_that_is_now_dated_to_a_maximum_of_1.49_Ma_([[#CITEREFMorwood_et_al.2003|Morwood_et_al._2003]])_clarifies_long-standing_uncertainties_over_the_age_of_this_important_specimen"]-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDennell2009155_["The_maximum_age_of_this_specimen_is_thus_1.49_million_years,_and_not_1.81_million_years,_as_implied_by_[[#CITEREFSwisher_et_al.1994|Swisher_et_al._1994]]"]Ciochon2010112_["As_the_relocated_discovery_bed_proved_to_be_~20&nbsp;m_above_the_horizon_that_[[#CITEREFSwisher_et_al.1994|Swisher_et_al._1994]]_dated,_the_skull_is_certainly_younger_than_had_been_previously_reported"_([[#CITEREFHuffman_et_al.2006|Huffman_et_al._2006]])"]Rabett201226_["the_1994_estimate_of_its_age_has_now_been_credibly_refuted_([[#CITEREFHuffman_et_al.2006|Huffman_et_al._2006]])"]Dennell2010266_["the_recent_re-discovery_of_the_precise_provenance_of_the_Mojokerto_cranium_that_is_now_dated_to_a_maximum_of_1.49_Ma_([[#CITEREFMorwood_et_al.2003|Morwood_et_al._2003]])_clarifies_long-standing_uncertainties_over_the_age_of_this_important_specimen"]_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDennell2009">Dennell 2009</a>, p. 155 ["The maximum age of this specimen is thus 1.49 million years, and not 1.81 million years, as implied by <a href="#CITEREFSwisher_et_al.1994">Swisher et al. 1994</a>"]; <a href="#CITEREFCiochon2010">Ciochon 2010</a>, p. 112 ["As the relocated discovery bed proved to be ~20 m above the horizon that <a href="#CITEREFSwisher_et_al.1994">Swisher et al. 1994</a> dated, the skull is certainly younger than had been previously reported" (<a href="#CITEREFHuffman_et_al.2006">Huffman et al. 2006</a>)"]; <a href="#CITEREFRabett2012">Rabett 2012</a>, p. 26 ["the 1994 estimate of its age has now been credibly refuted (<a href="#CITEREFHuffman_et_al.2006">Huffman et al. 2006</a>)"]; <a href="#CITEREFDennell2010">Dennell 2010</a>, p. 266 ["the recent re-discovery of the precise provenance of the Mojokerto cranium that is now dated to a maximum of 1.49 Ma (<a href="#CITEREFMorwood_et_al.2003">Morwood et al. 2003</a>) clarifies long-standing uncertainties over the age of this important specimen"].

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmalzer200834-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmalzer200834_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchmalzer2008">Schmalzer 2008</a>, p. 34.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGould1993135-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGould1993135_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGould1993">Gould 1993</a>, p. 135.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200069-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwisherCurtisLewin200069_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSwisherCurtisLewin2000">Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000</a>, p. 69.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDennell2009159–61-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDennell2009159–61_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDennell2009">Dennell 2009</a>, pp. 159–61.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFStorm2012" class="citation journal cs1">Storm, Paul (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251700566">"A carnivorous niche for Java Man? A preliminary consideration of the abundance of fossils in Middle Pleistocene Java"</a>. <a href="Comptes_rendus_de_l'Acad%C3%A9mie_des_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences">Comptes Rendus Palevol</a>. 11 (2–3): 191–202. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012CRPal..11..191S">2012CRPal..11..191S</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.crpv.2011.04.002">10.1016/j.crpv.2011.04.002</a>.</cite>

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</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h2></div>

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</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100513024229/http://www.athenapub.com/13intro-he.htm">"Introduction: The long journey of an ancient human ancestor"</a>. Athena Review. Vol. 4, no. 1: Homo erectus. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.athenapub.com/13intro-he.htm">the original</a> on 2010-05-13.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Java_Man" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Java Man">Java Man</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-evolution-timeline-interactive">Human Timeline (Interactive)</a> – <a href="Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian</a>, <a href="National_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="National Museum of Natural History">National Museum of Natural History</a> (August 2016).</li></ul>

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</style><div id="Human_evolution511" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="Human_taxonomy" title="Human taxonomy">Taxonomy</a> (<a href="Hominini" title="Hominini">Hominins</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Most_recent_common_ancestor" title="Most recent common ancestor">Last common ancestors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor">Chimpanzee–human</a></li>

<li><a href="Gorilla%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gorilla–human last common ancestor">Gorilla–human</a></li>

<li><a href="Orangutan%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Orangutan–human last common ancestor">Orangutan–human</a></li>

<li><a href="Gibbon%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gibbon–human last common ancestor">Gibbon–human</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Australopithecine" title="Australopithecine">Australopithecines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Nakalipithecus" title="Nakalipithecus">Nakalipithecus</a></li>

<li><a href="Orrorin" title="Orrorin">Orrorin</a></li>

<li><a href="Sahelanthropus" title="Sahelanthropus">Sahelanthropus</a></li>

<li><a href="Kenyanthropus" title="Kenyanthropus">Kenyanthropus</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Ardipithecus" title="Ardipithecus">Ardipithecus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ardipithecus_kadabba" title="Ardipithecus kadabba">A. kadabba</a></li>

<li><a href="Ardipithecus_ramidus" title="Ardipithecus ramidus">A. ramidus</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Australopithecus_afarensis" title="Australopithecus afarensis">A. afarensis</a></li>

<li><a href="Australopithecus_africanus" title="Australopithecus africanus">A. africanus</a></li>

<li><a href="Australopithecus_anamensis" title="Australopithecus anamensis">A. anamensis</a></li>

<li><a href="Australopithecus_bahrelghazali" title="Australopithecus bahrelghazali">A. bahrelghazali</a></li>

<li><a href="Australopithecus_deyiremeda" title="Australopithecus deyiremeda">A. deyiremeda</a></li>

<li><a href="Australopithecus_garhi" title="Australopithecus garhi">A. garhi</a></li>

<li><a href="Australopithecus_sediba" title="Australopithecus sediba">A. sediba</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Paranthropus" title="Paranthropus">Paranthropus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Paranthropus_aethiopicus" title="Paranthropus aethiopicus">P. aethiopicus</a></li>

<li><a href="Paranthropus_boisei" title="Paranthropus boisei">P. boisei</a></li>

<li><a href="Paranthropus_robustus" title="Paranthropus robustus">P. robustus</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Homo" title="Homo">Humans and proto-humans (Homo)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Proto-humans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Homo_gautengensis" title="Homo gautengensis">H. gautengensis</a> (?)</li>

<li><a href="Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">H. habilis</a></li>

<li><a href="Homo_naledi" title="Homo naledi">H. naledi</a></li>

<li><a href="Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis">H. rudolfensis</a> (?)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Dmanisi_hominins" title="Dmanisi hominins">H. e. georgicus</a></li>

<li><a href="Lantian_Man" title="Lantian Man">H. e. lantianensis</a></li>

<li><a href="Nanjing_Man" title="Nanjing Man">H. e. nankinensis</a></li>

<li><a href="Peking_Man" title="Peking Man">H. e. pekinensis</a></li>

<li><a href="Solo_Man" title="Solo Man">H. e. soloensis</a></li>

<li><a href="Tautavel_Man" title="Tautavel Man">H. e. tautavelensis</a></li>

<li><a href="Yuanmou_Man" title="Yuanmou Man">H. e. yuanmouensis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Archaic_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic humans">Archaic humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">H. antecessor</a></li>

<li><a href="Denisovan" title="Denisovan">Denisovans</a></li>

<li><a href="Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">H. ergaster</a> (?)</li>

<li><a href="Homo_floresiensis" title="Homo floresiensis">H. floresiensis</a></li>

<li><a href="Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">H. heidelbergensis</a></li>

<li><a href="Homo_longi" title="Homo longi">H. longi</a> (?)</li>

<li><a href="Homo_luzonensis" title="Homo luzonensis">H. luzonensis</a></li>

<li><a href="Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">H. neanderthalensis</a></li>

<li><a href="Homo_rhodesiensis" title="Homo rhodesiensis">H. rhodesiensis</a> (?)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Human" title="Human">Modern humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Homo_sapiens26" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Human" title="Human">Homo sapiens</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Early_modern_human" title="Early modern human">H. s. sapiens (archaic homo sapiens, anatomically modern humans)</a></li>

<li><a href="Jebel_Irhoud" title="Jebel Irhoud">Jebel Irhoud</a></li>

<li><a href="Herto_Man" title="Herto Man">H. s. idaltu</a></li>

<li><a href="Cro-Magnon" title="Cro-Magnon">Cro-Magnon</a></li>

<li><a href="Manot_1" title="Manot 1">Manot people</a></li>

<li><a href="Red_Deer_Cave_people" title="Red Deer Cave people">Red Deer Cave people</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Ancestors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">Homo habilis</a> → <a href="Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">Homo ergaster</a> / <a href="Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a> (→ <a href="Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">Homo antecessor</a>)? → <a href="Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">Homo heidelbergensis</a> → archaic Homo sapiens → <a href="Human" title="Human">Homo sapiens</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hunting_hypothesis" title="Hunting hypothesis">Hunting</a></li>

<li><a href="Gathering_hypothesis" title="Gathering hypothesis">Gathering</a></li>

<li><a href="Endurance_running_hypothesis" title="Endurance running hypothesis">Endurance running</a></li>

<li><a href="Aquatic_ape_hypothesis" title="Aquatic ape hypothesis">Aquatic ape</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-domestication#In_humans" title="Self-domestication">Self-domestication</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Diet

<ul><li><a href="Control_of_fire_by_early_humans#The_cooking_hypothesis" title="Control of fire by early humans">Cooking</a></li>

<li><a href="Expensive_tissue_hypothesis" title="Expensive tissue hypothesis">Expensive tissue</a></li>

<li><a href="Aquatic_ape_hypothesis#Diet" title="Aquatic ape hypothesis">Shore-based</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Drugs

<ul><li><a href="Drunken_monkey_hypothesis" title="Drunken monkey hypothesis">Drunken monkey</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_models_of_human_drug_use" title="Evolutionary models of human drug use">Evolutionary models of human drug use</a></li>

<li><a href="Stoned_ape_theory" title="Stoned ape theory">Stoned ape theory</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Behavior

<ul><li><a href="Killer_ape_theory" title="Killer ape theory">Killer ape</a></li>

<li><a href="Cooperative_eye_hypothesis" title="Cooperative eye hypothesis">Cooperative eye</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Life history

<ul><li><a href="Grandmother_hypothesis" title="Grandmother hypothesis">Grandmother</a></li>

<li><a href="Patriarch_hypothesis" title="Patriarch hypothesis">Patriarch</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics </th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Evolution_of_bipedalism_in_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of bipedalism in humans">Bipedalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_skeletal_changes_due_to_bipedalism" title="Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism">Skeleton</a></li>

<li><a href="Muscular_evolution_in_humans" title="Muscular evolution in humans">Muscles</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_skin_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of skin color">Skin color</a></li>

<li><a href="Cold_and_heat_adaptations_in_humans" title="Cold and heat adaptations in humans">Thermoregulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li>

<li><a href="Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Language</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_division_of_labour#Hypotheses_for_the_evolutionary_origins_of_SDL" title="Sexual division of labour">Gender roles</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Origin_of_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of modern humans">Origin of modern humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Recent_African_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Recent African origin of modern humans">Recent African origin</a></li>

<li><a href="Multiregional_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Multiregional origin of modern humans">Multiregional origin</a></li>

<li><a href="Interbreeding_between_archaic_and_modern_humans" title="Interbreeding between archaic and modern humans">Archaic admixture</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li>

<li><a href="Early_human_migrations" title="Early human migrations">Early migrations</a></li>

<li><a href="Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent evolution</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Timelines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_human_evolution" title="Timeline of human evolution">Human evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_prehistory" title="Timeline of prehistory">Human prehistory</a></li>

<li>Human timeline</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Theorists</li>

<li>Books</li>

<li><a href="List_of_human_evolution_fossils" title="List of human evolution fossils">Fossils</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary anthropology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Human_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Human evolutionary developmental biology">Human evolutionary developmental biology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li>

<li> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Human_evolution" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Human evolution">Commons</a></li>

<li> <a href="Portal%3AEvolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology Portal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Prehistoric_Asia345" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Prehistoric_Asia345" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Prehistoric_Asia" title="Prehistoric Asia">Prehistoric Asia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Dmanisi_hominins" title="Dmanisi hominins">Dmanisi hominins</a></li>

<li><a href="Japanese_Paleolithic" title="Japanese Paleolithic">Japanese Paleolithic</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China" title="List of Paleolithic sites in China">List of Paleolithic sites in China</a></li>

<li><a href="Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian culture</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Mesopotamia#Paleolithic_and_Epipaleolithic_periods" title="History of Mesopotamia">Paleolithic Mesopotamia</a></li>

<li><a href="Peking_Man" title="Peking Man">Peking Man</a></li>

<li><a href="Riwat" title="Riwat">Riwat</a></li>

<li><a href="Sangiran" title="Sangiran">Sangiran</a></li>

<li><a href="Soanian" title="Soanian">Soanian</a></li>

<li><a href="South_Asian_Stone_Age" title="South Asian Stone Age">South Asian Stone Age</a></li>

<li><a href="Ubeidiya_prehistoric_site" title="Ubeidiya prehistoric site">Ubeidiya</a></li>

<li><a href="Xiaochangliang" title="Xiaochangliang">Xiaochangliang</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a></li>

<li><a href="Neolithic#Early_settlements" title="Neolithic">Early Neolithic settlements</a></li>

<li><a href="Khiamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Khiamian">Khiamian culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Trialetian" class="mw-redirect" title="Trialetian">Trialetian culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Nemrikian culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Zarzian_culture" title="Zarzian culture">Zarzian culture</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China" title="List of Neolithic cultures of China">Neolithic China</a></li>

<li><a href="Neolithic_Tibet" title="Neolithic Tibet">Neolithic Tibet</a></li>

<li><a href="Prehistoric_Korea#Neolithic" title="Prehistoric Korea">Neolithic Korea</a></li>

<li><a href="Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Neolithic_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Neolithic South Asia">Neolithic South Asia</a></li>

<li><a href="Ohalo" class="mw-redirect" title="Ohalo">Ohalo</a></li>

<li><a href="Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_A" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic A">Pre-Pottery Neolithic A</a> (Mesopotamia)</li>

<li><a href="Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic B">Pre-Pottery Neolithic B</a> (Mesopotamia)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Daimabad" title="Daimabad">Daimabad</a></li>

<li><a href="Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex</a></li>

<li><a href="Bronze_Age_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age Anatolia">Bronze Age Anatolia</a></li>

<li><a href="Bronze_Age_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age Caucasus">Bronze Age Caucasus</a></li>

<li><a href="Bronze_Age_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age China">Bronze Age China</a></li>

<li><a href="Bronze_Age_India" title="Bronze Age India">Bronze Age India</a></li>

<li><a href="Bronze_Age_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age Korea">Bronze Age Korea</a></li>

<li><a href="Bronze_Age_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age Levant">Bronze Age Levant</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Bronze_Age_sites_in_China" title="List of Bronze Age sites in China">List of Bronze Age sites in China</a></li>

<li><a href="Seima-Turbino_phenomenon" class="mw-redirect" title="Seima-Turbino phenomenon">Seima-Turbino phenomenon</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> <a href="List_of_archaeological_periods" title="List of archaeological periods">Archaeological periods</a></li>

<li> <a href="List_of_time_periods" title="List of time periods">Time periods</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers373" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Taxon_identifiers373" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Taxon identifiers</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Homo erectus erectus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192993" class="extiw external" title="wikidata:Q192993">Q192993</a></li>

<li><a href="INaturalist" title="INaturalist">iNaturalist</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inaturalist.org/taxa/414232">414232</a></li></ul>

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This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-06-04" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Java_Man&oldid=1293896384">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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